However, the housework share that they undertake at home is higher than that among women in Liberal-regime countries. Accordingly, gender roles are social and psychological constructs, no. HWHousework, EGAEgalitarian Gender Attitudes. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Three-stage transitional theory of the association between gender attitudes and housework share. Rev. Therefore, the differences between traditional and egalitarian women and men in their housework activities would decrease. This trend is characteristic of the transitional period. doi:10.2307/3341927. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Similar patterns of change are observed in the case of Eastern European women and men. The alternate gender roles cited in the literature are not necessarily more open or accommodating than binary gender roles. In Southern European regimes (Spain and Portugal), social policies rely on traditional family networks as the source of care support and therefore the level of gender inequality in domestic work and employment is high. (2021). doi:10.1038/nature08230, Nordenmark, M. (2004). - Gender is a social construction that assigns behaviors, expectations, roles, representations, and sometimes values to females and males. The model outputs can be found in Supplementary Appendix 1. Eventually, however, a transitional society enters the multiple equilibria stage with new family forms demonstrating more egalitarian relations between women and men (Esping-Andersen and Billari, 2015). Random interceptrandom slopes estimates for housework share among women, ISSP 20022012. There are generous parental leave policies, but a male breadwinner role and a female carer role are assumed in social policies. How does the association between gender attitudes and housework share vary across countries and time? Am. This finding indicates that the overall mean of the housework performed by men have decreased in 2012 compared to 2002 when all else is held equal. He argued that such reversal in TFR is only attainable in societies with higher levels of gender egalitarianism in most spheres of life including the labour market and the home, as well as an advanced system of social benefits and of policies helping women and men to balance work and family such as universal access to childcare facilities and generous paid paternity and maternity leaves. Recent research generated more evidence that the housework share of women and men in heterosexual couples was converging in the industrial countries, albeit only slowly and intermittently (Altintas and Sullivan, 2017; Kan et al., 2011; Sullivan et al., 2018). Thus, we find only marginal evidence that the lagged adaptation phenomenon in mens housework participation is not as evident in the period between 2002 and 2012 for the overall pattern of the association between gender attitudes and housework share. Due to the prolongation of average education years and the value reorientation to individual self-actualisation and career-building rather than family, more women started postponing marriage and childbearing, which led to a precipitous fall in total fertility rates (TFR). The consequences of the on-going SDT among women are apparent in other countries: East Asian, Conservative (Central European), Southern European, Liberal-regime, and Latin American countries. Tables 3, 4 summarise the outputs for random intercept-random slope regression estimates for the year 2002 (Model 1), year 2012 (Model 2), pooled 20022012 without control variables (Model 3), pooled model with year interactions (Model 4), and pooled model with curvilinear association tested for the EGA variables and its interaction with the year variable (Model 5). Sample sizes vary across the countries, but the focus is on the individuals above 18 years old. Means of main variables men in ISSP countries. These variables are the number of children and the number of household members. This process, however, can as well be non-linear due to political, societal, and economic shocks. Does Gender Trump Money? p < 0.05, ** With the gradual erosion of gendered expectations, especially within the 20th century, the traditional man-breadwinner woman-homemaker specialization model changed. As mentioned earlier, East European countries have mixed characteristics of the Conservative and the Social Democratic welfare regime types (Fenger, 2007). Traditional gender role ideologies suggest that women should be caretakers and homemakers while men should be breadwinners; egalitarian gender role ideologies support men and women's equal participation in both work and family life. We had to drop a few counties in the process. J. Fam. The level of economic dependency uses the ISSP item reporting the partner in a couple with higher income. This finding indicates that the overall mean of the housework performed by men have decreased in 2012 compared to 2002 when all else is held equal. The frameworks are less likely to be able to explain the results for Latin American and Eastern European women and men, which experienced less stable political, economic, and social situations in the period between 2002 and 2012. Tables 1, ,22 show that women and mens weekly work hours decreased between 2002 and 2012. The author starts by focusing on families and households and how this societal structure led to the subordination of women and gender inequality within the family. 38, 105124. There are lots of reasons why marriages can fail today, and one has to do with how gender roles have changed. We find that men's and women's gender-role attitudes become more traditional when they become parents, with evidence that this process is more pronounced among men, parents of daughters and, most of all, male parents of daughters. First, in Social Democratic regimes or the Scandinavian region (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), gender equity in employment is high, and generous parental and paternal leave policies are in place to promote dual-earner families. Thus, the slope of the association between egalitarianism and housework share for the pre-transitional stage remains relatively flat for both women and men. Becker, G. S. (1981). Younger generations are socialized in a more egalitarian way than older generations; thus, they are expected to share housework in a more egalitarian way (Brewster and Padavic, 2000). The main country-level sample included 2years: 2002 and 2012. Given differences in gender norms, societal and policy contexts, in line with the multiple equilibrium perspective, there are variations in the pace of change in the association between gender attitudes and housework among different countries. Research Brief, January 2019, Satisfaction with Family Status and Housework Participation in Modern China, Chinese Families: Tradition, Modernisation, and Change. TABLE 3. Overall, however, the results are not that straight forward. Exit, Voice, and Suffering: Do Couples Adapt to Changing Employment Patterns? The results also show that the association varied across the 24 countries, reaching an equilibrium in many but at different stages. Hypothesis 1. doi:10.1057/9781137314796_1. Overall, the results provide support for Hypothesis 1. In post-transitional society, we expect that more traditional women and men will catch up with egalitarian ones in their behaviour, including participation in housework. Gender and Social Policy: Comparing Welfare States in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. The interaction terms between EGA and housework share show that the change in housework share was mostly driven by women and men with more egalitarian attitudes. In 2016, over 250 such bills were introduced. Over time and with generational change, the whole system will stabilize into this new set of equilibria. Photo by Gotty, 2007. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Exit, Voice, and Suffering: Do Couples Adapt to Changing Employment Patterns? 68, 11471164. The recent research, however, presented evidence that the trends in TFR and divorce were reversing: in a few more gender-egalitarian societies, particularly in the Scandinavian region, the TFR began to increase (Lesthaeghe, 2010). The negative effect of husbands' traditional gender role attitudes was also evident at the multivariate level; couples in which the husbands' gender role attitudes were more traditional reported lower marital quality than couples in which the husbands' gender role attitudes were more egalitarian, F(1, 613)=4.49, p<.05, d=.17. In East Asian regimes (Japan and Taiwan), the welfare policies were built upon the Confucian ideology which emphasizes family ties and traditional gender roles (Sung and Pascall, 2014). Soc. Fam. Marriage Fam. Summary of EGA random slopes by welfare regime and by years, women. All the above international studies suggest that there occurred a reversal in fertility rates and marriage stability among the higher socioeconomic stratum, which may eventually spill over to the rest of the population. The figure rose to 62% in 2012, and to 72% in 2017 (Huchet-Bodet et al., 2019). A look at traditional versus modern roles. Egalitarian gender attitudes and housework share country means, women. (2009) found that among countries with the highest human development index (HDI), such as Norway, the Netherlands, the United States, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany, among others, the TFR reversed and became positive in between 1975 and 2005. Hypothesis 1. For example, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, post-Soviet regime countries underwent a transition to more traditional gender relations as a result of the decline in institutional provisions and benefits such as universal access to nurseries and kindergartens (Pascall and Manning, 2000), the abolishment of state ideology, including the doctrine of the Soviet women-workers capable to work on par with men (Atwood, 1999), the revival of religion promulgating more orthodox gender values, and because of globalization and the diffusion of more traditional gender attitudes common in other countries outside of the Soviet Union. Women are expected to take a secondary role as breadwinner in the family and the major caring role in the family. government site. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00024.x, Esping-Andersen, G., Boertien, D., Bonke, J., and Gracia, P. (2013). This result confirms both theories by Lesthaeghe (2010) and Esping-Andersen and Billari (2015). Fenger, M. (2007). Random interceptrandom slopes estimates for housework share among men, ISSP 20022012. We also find for the overall pattern, net of the effects of the country context, also shows the evidence of the lagged adaptation for more traditional women and men, compared to their more gender-egalitarian counterparts (Gershuny et al., 2005). Over time and with generational change, the whole system will stabilize into this new set of equilibria. These results may suggest that men and women may have different pace in the adaption to more egalitarian housework share and gender attitudes in the SDT. Higher education opens one's mind to the inequality of domestic labor, discrimination, and recognizing the great influence that men have over women in education, the work force, and Explains that gender role attitudes are an individual's interpretation and expectation on how a woman or man should behave. This suggests that women in these countries have already entered the transitional stage but men remained in the pre-transitional stage. Welfare 13, 233243. Although housework participation and its association with gender attitudes have been examined in housework studies (Baxter, 1992; Bianchi et al., 2000; Coltrane and Ishii-Kuntz, 1992; Cunningham, 2005; Fuwa, 2004; Gazso-Windle and McMullin, 2003; Greenstein, 1996; Hu and Kamo, 2007; Kan, 2008a; Kan and Laurie, 2018; Kan et al., 2021; Kolpashnikova and Kan, 2020; Kolpashnikova et al., 2020; Lewin-Epstein et al., 2006), none of the studies explicitly connected their results with the SDT (Lesthaeghe, 2010). Is Anyone Doing the Housework? However, education and earnings potential have become much more critical as criteria for a marriage partner. We aggregated seven questions regarding gender attitudes, which were available in both 2002 and 2012 surveys to construct the egalitarian gender attitudes (EGA) scale: To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statement: 1) A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work; 2) A preschool child is likely to suffer if his or her mother works; 3) All in all, family life suffers when the woman has a full-time job; 4) A job is all right, but what most women really want is a home and children; 5) Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay; 6) Both the man and woman should contribute to the household income; 7) A mans job is to earn money; a womans job is to look after the home and family. Sociological Methodol. 53% of the population agreed that both the man and the woman should contribute to household income in 1989. It becomes increasingly normative for a woman to be employed, as well as for men, to do housework. The stylised surveys like the ISSP often suffer from the social desirability bias, and researchers often recommend using time-use measures of housework participation (Kan, 2008b; Kan and Pudney, 2008) such as the Multinational Time Use Survey and the Harmonised European Time Use Survey. Moreover, we connected the findings with the predictions of the three-stage transitional theory, introduced in the theoretical part of this paper. The results also show that the period effect among men, net of the interaction with the EGA, is negative (b = 4.041, SE = 1.725). Gazso-Windle and McMullin (2003) established similar results for Canadian women and men, Baxter (1992)for Australian women and men, Bianchi et al. The Division of Household Labor in Taiwan. Stalled or Uneven Gender Revolution? Thus, the intercepts may vary not only for regions but also among countries within the regions. Who Is Doing the Housework in Multicultural Britain? Hypothesis 3: The change in the association between gender attitudes and housework between 2002 and 2012 varied among the countries. In 2012, an average woman with the highest score on the egalitarianism scale did 11% less of the housework share than an average woman with traditional gender attitudes (Model 2 in Table 3, b = 2.700, SE = 0.497), an average man with more EGA did about 10% more than an average man with traditional gender attitudes (Model 2 in Table 4, b = 2.897, SE = 0.776). The demographic changes, described in Lesthaeghe (2010) and Esping-Andersen and Billari (2015), must be traceable in all individual activities affected by the shifts in gender ideology, including housework. doi:10.1111/jftr.12248, Sung, S., and Pascall, G. (2014). Gershuny, J., Godwin, M., and Jones, S. (1994). Figure 2 also shows that Southern European, East Asian, and Latin American women shoulder a higher share of housework responsibilities than women in other regimes, particularly in Japan. After the transitional period, societies are expected to settle in a new system of multiple family forms and archetypes of family and gender relations. International Social Survey Programme. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. After removing observations with missing values, the total sample contained 19,609 observations. One notable exception is the Scandinavian countries, where the more traditional women and men were catching up with the egalitarian counterparts in their practice of housework division within households. doi:10.1086/229030, Pascall, G., and Manning, N. (2000). 10, 240266. Beyond States and Markets: Families and Family Regimes in Latin America, in Latin American Social Policy Developments in the Twenty-First Century. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Esping-Andersen and Billari (2015) argued that the initial shockwave of the gender revolution and the departure from the traditional man-breadwinner woman-homemaker family specialization model brought about the decline in fertility, an increase in divorce rates, and above all, a realignment in gender relations at home. Sylvia Rivera Way, New York City, New York. We have checked the robustness of the results using other techniques such as OLS regression separately for each region with country dummies and country interactions with EGA variable. Stalled or Uneven Gender Revolution? The lagged adaptation or lagged alignment between gender ideology and housework participation can also be conflated with period and cohort effects because socialization is also dependent on period and cohort effects (Davis and Greenstein, 2009). Marriage Fam. Because of the period effect (Brewster and Padavic, 2000; Ciabattari, 2001; Carter and Borch, 2005), the gender ideologies might be just a reflection of a new era, rather than the true association between housework participation and gender ideologies, to name a few alternative explanations, which need to be weeded out. Gender role ideology can be defined as a person's view toward women's roles in society. Work, Employment Soc. Our key research questions are: 1) whether the differences between gender-egalitarian and gender-traditional women and men in their undertaking of housework share are exacerbated in the SDT; 2) whether there are welfare regime and regional differences in the association between gender egalitarianism and housework share, especially among the Scan. The figure uses a quadratic approximation for the association between egalitarianism and housework share based on Model 5 in Tables 3, ,44 because quadratic approximations provide a more accurate prediction of the association between egalitarianism and housework share and it helps us reveal the pattern of lagged adaptation among men. In our analyses of the association between egalitarian gender attitudes and housework share, we use cross-national data of the ISSP 2002 and 2012 Family and Changing Gender Roles (ISSP Research Group, 2009).
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